Silver

~Adapted from National Library of Medicine

 

Silver is a soft and shiny transition metal which is known to have the highest reflectivity of all metals. Among its many useful properties, silver is recognized to have antimicrobial activity. Silver is known to be biologically active when it is dispersed into its monoatomic ionic state (Ag+), when it is soluble in aqueous environments. This is the same form which appears in ionic silver compounds such as silver nitrate and silver sulfadiazine, which have been frequently used to treat wounds. Another form of silver is its native nanocrystalline form (Ag0). The metallic (Ag0) and ionic forms can also appear loosely associated with other elements such as oxygen or other metals and can form covalent bonds or coordination complexes.

To date, there are three known mechanisms by which silver acts on microbes. Firstly, silver cations can form pores and puncture the bacterial cell wall by reacting with the peptidoglycan component. Secondly, silver ions can enter into the bacterial cell, both inhibiting cellular respiration and disrupting metabolic pathways resulting in generation of reactive oxygen species. Lastly, once in the cell silver can also disrupt DNA and its replication cycle. Throughout history, silver has consistently been used to restrict the spread of human disease by incorporation into articles used in daily life. The earliest recorded use of silver for therapeutic purposes dates back to the Han Dynasty in China circa. 1500 B.C.E. Silver vessels and plates were frequently used during the Phoenician, Macedonian, and Persian empires . Families of the higher socioeconomic classes during the middle-ages were so acquainted with the usage of silver that they developed bluish skin discolorations known as argyria, an affliction which may have led to the term ‘blue blood’ to describe members of the aristocracy. Modern medicine utilizes medical grade forms of silver, such as silver nitrate, silver sulfadiazine, and colloidal silver.

The discovery of antibiotics in the early 20th century led to a cessation in the development of silver as an antimicrobial agent. However, the development of increasing levels of bacterial resistance to most antibiotics in recent years has led to reexamination of the potential of this ancient remedy including studies with patients using colloidal silver and antibiotics. 

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Zinc

~Adapted from Oregon State University

 

Zinc is a nutritionally essential mineral needed for catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions in the body. Severe zinc deficiency is rare and caused by an inherited condition called acrodermatitis enteropathica. Acquired zinc deficiency is primarily due to malabsorption syndromes and chronic alcoholism.  Dietary zinc deficiency is quite common in the developing world, affecting an estimated 2 billion people. Consumption of diets high in phytate and lacking foods from animal origin drive zinc deficiency in these populations. Dietary zinc deficiency has been associated with impaired growth and development in children, pregnancy complications, and immune dysfunction with increased susceptibility to infections. Current evidence suggests that supplemental zinc may be useful in the management of chronic conditions, such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetes mellitus, Wilson’s disease, and HIV/AIDS.

Zinc is an essential trace element for all forms of life. Clinical zinc deficiency in humans was first described in 1961, when the consumption of diets with low zinc bioavailability due to high phytate content was associated with adolescent nutritional dwarfism in the Middle East. Since then, zinc insufficiency has been recognized by a number of experts as an important public health issue, especially in low-resource countries).Numerous aspects of cellular metabolism are zinc-dependent. Zinc plays important roles in growth and development, immune function, neurotransmission, vision, reproduction, and intestinal ion transport. 

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Copper

~Adapted from Oregon State University

 

Copper is an essential cofactor for oxidation-reduction reactions involving copper-containing oxidases. Copper enzymes regulate various physiologic pathways, such as energy production, iron metabolism, connective tissue maturation, and neurotransmission. Copper deficiency can result from malnutrition, malabsorption, or excessive zinc intake and can be acquired or inherited. Symptoms include deficiencies in blood cells, bone and connective tissue abnormalities, and neurologic disorders. Marginal copper imbalance has been linked to impaired immune function, bone demineralization, and increased risk of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. 

Copper (Cu) is an essential trace element for humans and animals. In the body, copper shifts between the cuprous (Cu1+) and cupric (Cu2+) forms, though the majority of the body's copper is in the Cu2+ form. The ability of copper to easily accept and donate electrons explains its important role in oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and in scavenging free radicals. Although Hippocrates is said to have prescribed copper compounds to treat diseases as early as 400 BC, scientists are still uncovering new information regarding the functions of copper in the human body.

Copper is a critical functional component of several essential enzymes known as cuproenzymes. The copper-dependent enzyme, cytochrome c oxidase, plays a critical role in cellular energy production. By catalyzing the reduction of molecular oxygen (O2) to water (H2O), cytochrome c oxidase generates an electrical gradient used by the mitochondria to create the vital energy-storing molecule, ATP. Another cuproenzyme, lysyl oxidase, is required for the cross-linking of collagen and elastin, which are essential for the formation of strong and flexible connective tissue. The action of lysyl oxidase helps maintain the integrity of connective tissue in the heart and blood vessels and also plays a role in bone formation.